Furniture - English

[NOTE: Only part of the section on English Furniture has been transcribed.]

The Age of Oak
English furniture from the Middle Ages to the Restoration in 1660 was made almost entirely of oak. William Harrison, writing late in the sixteenth century in his Historical Description of the Island of Britaine, said that 'nothing but oak was any whit regarded'.

The oak, which is the most common species of tree in this country, is hard and heavy, the colour varying from white to brown. Evelyn, in 1663, writes that it was 'of much esteem in former times till the finer grain's Norway timber came amongst us which is likewise of a whiter colour'. Although the oak is a very tough tree, it was discovered at an early date that there was little difficulty in splitting it along the lines of the medullary rays, provided that this were done before the fibres hardened. However, it must always have been necessary to use a saw for wood of a great age, or for wood that had been allowd to harden after felling. These saw-cut logs were immersed in flowing water for a period of up to two years and were then stored for a further ten to twenty years, after they had been converted into planks. The timber, thus seasoned, was then considered to be ready for use.

Constructions. Furniture of the oak period is generally rectangular in construction is very strongly built. Its component parts are put together with mortise and tenon, which in turn are held in position by wooden dowels. Evelyn, describing the furniture of the early seventeenth century, writes: 'they had cupboards of ancient useful plate, whole chests of damask for table . . . and the sturdy oaken bedstead and furniture of the house lasted the whole century'. Much of this oak furniture has, of course, lasted far longer than a century, and on account of its strength has come down to us in almost pristine condition.

Surface Decoration - Early Gothic furniture, which is extremely rare, was of relatively plain form and relied on colour for its decoration. Its surface was often lime-whitened, and to this ground was added a polychrome scheme of decoration executed in oils or tempera. By the middle of the sixteenth c. the surface was frequently left in its natural state, and by the 17th c. some kind of preservatives such as beeswax was rubbed in, which now gives to the oak its deep and rich patination. The use of gilt and gesso so dear to the Italians during the Renaissance, was seldom if ever used in England during the period under review [from the Middle Ages to the Restoration in 1660] [p. 152]

Carving - The Gothic style of carving and ornamentation, which had grown very flamboyant by the end of the fifteenth c., was gradually superseded during the reigns of the Early Tudors by Renaissance motifs. These were introduced from the Continent by Italian, French, and Flemish craftsmen. The earlier linenfold paneling was often combined with the new forms of decoration, such as grotesque masks, arabesques, and carved caryatids. During the Elizabethan period every kind of carved motif was employed and we find strapwork, terminal figures, bulbous supports, festoons, swags, geometric and medallion panels, lozenges, arcading, and pilasters.

There was a marked reaction against this flamboyant style by the early 17th c., and [p. 152] carving began to give way to applied decoration. Bosses, demi-balusters, and other forms of pendant decoration, often stained black in imitation of ebony, were applied to the plain or paneled surfaces, and moulded geometric panels were a favourite form of ornamentation. The sober spirit of the Commonwealth was reflected in its furniture, which was simple to an almost monotonous degree, as every form of decoration was frowned upon. The Restoration of the Monarchy, which heralded the walnut period, was a complete antithesis to the austerity of the Interegnum, and the exuberance and vivacity of the Court of Charles II were immediately attracted to the International Baroque. [pp. 152-153]

Inlay - The use of an elaborate pictorial marquetry of many exotic woods was a feature of Renaissance decoration and entire rooms were paneled in this extravagant form of ornamentation. It was greatly favoured on the Continent, as the paneled rooms at the Escurial outside Madrid and the Ducal Palace at Urbino bear witness, and it was also popular in the North of England. The finest extant example in Britain is the room from Sizergh Castle which has now been re-assembled in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Pieces of Elizabethan and Jacobean oak furniture were often inlaid with a chequered design of marquetry-or parquetry, as a geometric, mosaic, or cube design inlay of woods is called--in boxwood, holly, poplar, and bog oak. . . . .

Shaped slivers of wood about the thickness of a piece of paper are laid on the ground which is to be inlaid, and the required design is then marked round them. This is in turn cut out from the surface and the prepared pieces of wood are in laid and glued down. A distinctive style of inlay was evolved during the latter half of the seventeenth century in which pieces of engraved bone and mother-of-pearl were inset as a form of surface decoration. The Portuguese in India and the Moors in southern Spain both used this form of inlay, and it was probably introduced to Britain from one of these two centers. [p. 153]

Chief Periods and Styles . . . .

The Age of Walnut
There is some doubt about the exact date when the walnut tree was introduced into England, but it is certain that it was being used for furniture in the Tudor period, especially for beds. One of Henry VIII's great beds had a head piece of walnut, and in 1587 we read of 'a bedsteed of walnuttrye in Ladies chamber'. But as the chief wood of fashionable furniture the great period of walnut can be considered to cover the best part of the century beginning at 1660. Two main kinds of walnut were used, the European [Juglans regia] and the North American [Juglans nigra], the black or Virginia walnut] . . . .

Chief Periods and Styles . . . .

Other Timbers . . . .

Decoration . . . .

Gesso . . . .

Japanwork . . . .

Mouldings . . . .

Turning . . . .

Veneers, Marquetry, and Parquetry - Veneering was the chief decorative feature of walnut furniture. It originated on the Continent, and gave opportunity for flat decoration, which showed to the full the beauties of the grain. Veneers were thin layers of wood cut by handsaw, perhaps one-eighth of an inch thick, and glued to a carefully prepared surface, which was nearly always of imported yellow deal, a variety of pine or fir which was better able to take glue than oak. Not only did the veneers preserve and strengthen the wood underneath, but they were found to be the only practical way to use the rare woods like walnut burrs, which would twist if worked in the solid. The chief patterns were the 'curl' or 'crotch', a plume effect taken from the junction of a side branch with the main trunk, the 'oyster', cut from branches to show the rings in the wood and the 'burr', an intricate figuring from abnormal growths at the base of the trunk. Successive veneers from the same piece of wood, showing duplicated patterns, were often quartered, or glued in sections of four, on suitable surfaces. Besides walnut, yew, elm, and mulberry made high-quality veneers, and laburnum and olive produced excellent oyster figures.

Marquetry was an advanced from of veneering, much employed in Holland, which first came into prominence in English furniture about 1675,. With infinite patience and skill veneers of various coloured woods were cut into delicate patterns and fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle. For this process walnut could be changed in colour by dyeing, scorching with hot sand, staining, bleaching, and fading, but, naturally, many other timbers of suitable colour, both native and foreign, were used [as indicated under 'Other Timbers' above]. At first English marquetry followed the Flemish mode and concentrated on bird, flower, and foliage designs, sometimes with the aid of materials other than wood, such as bone and ivory. The colours tended to tone down to quieter dark or golden shades about 1690. By 1700 arabesques were popular, together with the most intricate form of all, the seaweed or endive marquetry, which was shown to great effect on clock cases, cabinets, and table tops. Early in the 18th c. the marquetry phase was running out, and there was a return to the plainer veneering. Parquetry was a form of marquetry which emphasized geometrical patterns, with the same skillful use of contrasting colours. It was used far more widely on the Continent.

Veneered surfaces had two characteristic decorations, cross banding, or cross grain, veneered strips bordering other veneers, and herring bone banding, two smaller rows of tiny strips of veneer applied diagonally, often in contrasting colours. Each could be used singly, or together, on drawer fronts, table tops, bureau flaps, and similar fields. The popularity of veneering introduced distinct changes in the construction of furniture as well as in its appearance. The paneling technique of oak was unable to provide the flat, smooth surfaces necessary for taking veneers. For angles on carcases and drawers the old method of dovetailing [the through or common dovetail], though the strongest form, had the great disadvantage of showing the end grain on both sides of the angle, and this was unsatisfactory for holding veneers. Shortly before 1700 it was replaced by the lap or stopped dovetail, which had the end grain on the side only, leaving the front quite clear for veneering. [pp. 158-159]

Bureaux, Cabinets, Bookcases, etc.

Chairs, Day Beds, Stools, and Settees

Chests of Drawers and Tallboys

Clock Cases

Mirrors

Tables

The Age of Mahogany and Satinwood

Chief Periods and Styles

Other Timbers

Decoration

Fretwork - This form of decorative work was popular in Chippendale's time, particularly to show Chinese patterns. Fret designs could be either open or applied. The open fret was seen on table and cabinet tops and the applied fret was found on the flat surfaces of chairs, tables, cabinets, etc.

Inlay - Robert Adam revived fine inlaid work, which in technique resembled seventeenth-c. marquetry [see Walnut] but different from it in the use of classical designs and figures, and of new, lighter-coloured woods. An effective form of inlay much favoured by Sheraton was stringing, or lines of inlay in contrasting woods or brass, some of the work being of extreme delicacy.

Metal Mounts - These were made of brass and were fine gilt, which gave them a rich and golden appearance. They were used for work in the rococo style and decorative effect in the Regency period. The finest quality ormolu mounts were made by Matthew Boulton in his factory at Soho, outside Birmingham. His best period was 1762-75.

Veneers

Bureaux, Cabinets, Desks, Bookcases, etc.

Chairs

Chests of Drawers, Commodes, and Tallboys

Clock Cases

Mirrors

Tables and Sideboards

Small Tables

Tripod Tables

Dining Tables

Sideboards

Victorian Furniture

Early Victorian Furniture 1837-51

Mid-Victorian Furniture 1851-67

The Gothic Revival

Morris Furniture

Bruce J. Talbert and C. L. Eastlake

T. E. Collcutt

The Anglo-Japanese Style

The Arts and Crafts Movement

Smaller Furniture of All Periods