1. For an introduction to the historical sources see the Cambridge Ancient History, VII [Cambridge, 1928], chapters 10-13. A good survey of the more recent archaeological research is to be found in A. Furumar, Det äldsta Italien [Uppsala, 1947]. Southern Italy and Sicily already lay within reach of the Mycenaean civilization of Greece. Traffic across the Adriatic Sea is the most likely explanation: Furumark, op. cit., 52-8. For the subsequent history of navigation in the eastern Mediterranean see Rhys Carpenter, Folktale, Fiction and Saga in the Homeric Epos [Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1946], 102-10. Also idem, 'The Greek Penetration of the Black Sea', A.J.A., Li [1948], 8. Herodotus, I, 163 claimed that the penteconters built by the Phocaeans of Asia Minor about 700 were instrumental in the exploration of the west. This observation may well be true. The new oared ships could move under their own power and thereby free themselves from the 'tyranny of the winds' [Carpenter].

2. The chronology of the Phoenician colonization in the west is still much disputed. The comparatively early, traditional date of the foundation of Carthage, 814, has been defended by W. F. Albright, Studies in the History of Culture presented to W. G. Leland [Washington, 1942], 40-1.

3. In the chronology of the Greek colonies in the west the crux is the foundation date of Syracuse: 734, if one follows Thucydides. On this depend the dates of other, slightly younger colonies such as Catania and Leontini. Nor did Syracuse come first. Strabo, 5.245, declared Cumae the oldest Greek colony in the west. The time difference with Syracuse cannot have been considerable, however, and therfore c. 750 is given in our text as the likely date for Cumae. The question is in what way - if at all - the archaeological date can be harmonized with this historical tradition. Two styles of pottery represent the earliest strata in these cities: Greek Protocorinthian and domestic Geometric. In Greece one would assume that Geometric comes before Protocorinthian, but the same sequence is not necessarily true of Italy. The likelihood at present is that in Italy the bulk of the native Geometric ware belongs to the seventh century, and a great deal of it near the middle of that century rather than the beginning. But the earliest Protocorinthian vases of Cumae and Syracuse represent a Greek importation which probably started around 710. Thus the paradoxical situation arises that they are older than many native vases with geometric decorations. Actually during the following century Late Geometric and Protocorinthian vases are often found side by side in Italian tombs. This fact indicates no more than that, in Italy, the Geometric style of decoration remained long in use. For the art-historical significance of this fact see below, Chapter 2.

The need for a fresh synchronization of the Geometric and Protocorinthian styles in Greece and Italy has increasingly come to the fore in recent studies. See for further discussion: A. Akerstûm, Der geometrische Stil in Italien [Uppsala, 1943]; A. W. Byvanck, 'The Chronology of Greek and Italian Art in the Eighth and Seventh Centuries B.C.', Mnemosyne, xiii [1947], 241-53; Pareti, 483-95; T. J. Dunababin, The Western Greeks [Oxford, 1948], especially 435-71; F. Villard, 'La Chronologie de la céramique protocorinthienne', Mélanges d'archéologie et d'historie, LX [1948], 7-34.

4. For a comprehensive presentation of the Etruscan problem, including the outline of an 'indigenous' solutioni, see M. Pallotino, Etruscologia, 6th ed. [Milan, 1968], and bibliography. Other select readings on the protohistory of central Italy must include the following: D. Randall-MacIver, The Iron Age in Italy [Oxford, 1947]; F. von Duhn and F. Messerschmidt, Italishe GrÉverkunde, 2 vols [Heidelberg, 1924, 1939]; J. Whatmough, The Foundation of Roman Italy [London, 1937]; G. Kashnitz-Weinberg in W. Otto and R. Herbig, Handbuch der AchÉologie [Munich, 1954], 311-401; D. H. Trump, Central and Southern Italy before Rome [New York and Washington, 1965]; H. Hencken, Tarquinia, Villanovans and Early Etruscans, 2 vols [American School of Prehistoric Research, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Bulletin no. XXIII] [Cambridge, Mass., 1968]. The first strata in all early Etruscan settlements are Villanovan: M. Pallottino, 'Tarquinia', Monumenti Antichi, xxxvi [1937], 149-54; cf. idem, 'Nuovi orientamenti sulla cronologia dell'Etruria protostorica', Rend. Pontificia Accademia, XXII [1946], 31-41, and A. BoÎthius, 'Oservazioni riguardante la cronologia del materiale villanoviano proposta da Ake Akerstrûm', Eranos, XLI [1943], 169-75.

5. A survey of the founding legends side by side with the ethnographical and archaeological evidence of early Rome: I. Scott Ryberg, 'Early Roman Traditions in the Light of Archaeology', M.A.A.R., VII [1929], 7-118, plates 1-7.

6. Villanovan and Fossa ceramics in Latium: the distinction is due to G. Kashnitz-Weinberg, who also coined the term Fossa Civilization; see S. Etr., VII [1933], 135-95, and his article in Otto and Herbig, op. cit. [Note 4]. New Iron Age materials from Rome have since come to light in excavations on the Palatine Hill and in the Roman Forum: cf. S. M. Puglisi, P. Romanelli, A. Cavico, and G. De Angelis d'Ossat in Monumenti Antichi, XLI [1951], cols. 1-134; E. Gherstad, Early Rome, IV [Lund, 1966] For the south Italian antecedents of the Latin Fossa ceramics, especially the sites of Torre Galli and Canale, both in Calabria, see Furumark, op. cit. [Note 1], 72-6.